{ Adopted: 3 Nov 1946 / Effective: 3 May 1947 / Status: 1994 }
Preamble
We, the Japanese people
We, the Japanese people, desire peace for all time and are deeply conscious of the high ideals controlling human relationship, and we have determined to preserve our security and existence, trusting in the justice and faith of the peace-loving peoples of the world. We desire to occupy an honored place in an international society striving for the preservation of peace, and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppression, and intolerance for all time from the earth. We recognize that all peoples of the world have the right to live in peace, free from fear and want.
We believe that no nation is responsible to itself alone, but that laws of political morality are universal; and that obedience to such laws is incumbent upon all nations who would sustain their own sovereignty and justify their sovereign relationship with other nations.
We, the Japanese people, pledge our national honor to accomplish these high ideals and purposes with all our resources.
Article 1 [Symbol of State]
The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity
of the people, deriving his position from the will of the people
with whom resides sovereign power.
Article 2 [Dynastic Throne]
The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in
accordance with the Imperial House Law passed by the Diet.
Article 3 [Cabinet Approval and Responsibility]
The advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all
acts of the Emperor in matters of state, and the Cabinet shall be
responsible therefor.
Article 4 [Rule of Law for Emperor]
(1) The Emperor shall perform only such acts in matters of
state as are provided for in this Constitution and he shall not
have powers related to government.
(2) The Emperor may delegate the performance of his acts in
matters of state as may be provided by law.
Article 5 [Regency]
(1) When, in accordance with the Imperial House Law, a
Regency is established, the Regent shall perform his acts in
matters of state in the Emperor's name.
(2) In this case, Article 4 (1) will be applicable.
Article 6 [Appointments]
(1) The Emperor shall appoint the Prime Minister as
designated by the Diet.
(2) The Emperor shall appoint the Chief Judge of the Supreme
Court as designated by the Cabinet.
Article 7 [Functions]
The Emperor, with the advice and approval of the Cabinet,
shall perform the following acts in matters of state on behalf of
the people:
1. Promulgation of amendments of the constitution, laws,
cabinet orders and treaties.
2. Convocation of the Diet.
3. Dissolution of the House of Representatives.
4. Proclamation of general election of members of the
Diet.
5. Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of
State and other officials as provided for by law, and of full
powers and credentials of Ambassadors and Ministers.
6. Attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of
punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.
7. Awarding of honors.
8. Attestation of instruments of ratification and other
diplomatic documents as provided for by law.
9. Receiving foreign ambassadors and ministers.
10. Performance of ceremonial functions.
Article 8 [Property Authorization]
No property can be given to, or received by, the Imperial
House, nor can any gifts be made therefrom, without the
authorization of the Diet.
Article 9
(1) Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice
and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a
sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as
means of settling international disputes.
(2) In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph,
land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will
never be maintained.
(3) The right of aggression of the state will not be recognized.
Article 10 [Citizenship]
The conditions necessary for being a Japanese national shall be
determined by law.
Article 11 [Fundamental Human Rights]
(1) The people shall not be prevented from enjoying any of the
fundamental human rights.
(2) These fundamental human rights, guaranteed to the people
by this Constitution, shall be conferred upon the people of this
and future generations as irrevocable and inviolable rights.
Article 12 [Goal to Preserve Freedom and Rights]
The freedoms
Article 13 [Individual Rights]
(1) All of the people shall be respected as individuals.
(2) Their right to live, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness
shall, to the extent that it does not interfere with the public
welfare, be the supreme consideration in legislation and in other
governmental affairs.
Article 14 [No Discrimination and Privileges]
(1) All of the people are equal under the law
(2) Peers and peerage shall not be recognized.
(3) No privilege shall accompany any award of honor,
decoration, or any distinction, nor shall any such award be
valid beyond the lifetime of the individual who now holds or
hereafter may receive it.
Article 15 [Electoral Rights]
(1) The people have the inalienable right to choose their public
officials and to dismiss them.
(2) All public officials are servants of the whole community
and not of any group thereof.
(3) Universal adult suffrage is guaranteed with regard to the
election of public officials.
(4) In all elections, secrecy of the ballot shall not be violated.
(5) A voter shall not be answerable, publicly or privately, for
the choice he has made.
Article 16 [Right to Petition]
Every person shall have the right to peacefully petition for the
redress of damage, for the removal of public officials, for the
enactment, repeal or amendment of laws, ordinances or
regulations, and for other matters; nor shall any person be in
any way discriminated against for sponsoring such a petition.
Article 17 [Recourse to the Courts]
Every person may sue for redress as provided by law from the
State or a public entity, in case he has suffered damage through
illegal act of any public official.
Article 18 [Personal Freedom]
No person shall be held in bondage of any kind. Involuntary
servitude, except as punishment for crime, is prohibited.
Article 19 [Freedom of Thought and Conscience]
Freedom of thought and conscience shall not be violated.
Article 20 [Freedom of Religion, Secularity of the State]
(1) Freedom of religion
(2) No religious organization shall receive any privileges from
the State, nor exercise any political authority.
(3) No person shall be compelled to take part in any religious
act, celebration, rite or practice.
(4) The State and its organs shall refrain from religious
education or any other religious activity.
Article 21 [Communicative Rights]
(1) Freedom of assembly and association as well as speech,
press, and all other forms of expression
(2) No censorship shall be maintained, nor shall the secrecy of
any means of communication be violated.
Article 22 [Right to Move, Freedom of Profession]
(1) Every person shall have freedom to choose and change his
residence and to choose his occupation to the extent that it does
not interfere with the public welfare.
(2) Freedom of all persons to move to a foreign country and to
divest themselves of their nationality shall be inviolate.
Article 23 [Academic Freedom]
Academic freedom is guaranteed.
Article 24 [Matrimonial Equality]
(1) Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both
sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation
with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis.
(2) With regards to choice of spouse, property rights,
inheritance, choice of domicile, divorce, and other matters
pertaining to marriage and the family, laws shall be enacted
from the standpoint of individual dignity and the essential
equality of the sexes.
Article 25 [Welfare Rights]
(1) All people shall have the right to maintain the minimum
standards of wholesome and cultured living.
(2) In all spheres of life, the State shall use its endeavors for
the promotion and extension of social welfare and security, and
of public health.
Article 26 [Right to Education, Compulsory Education]
(1) All people shall have the right to receive an equal
education correspondent to their ability, as provided by law.
(2) All people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls
under their protection receive ordinary education as provided
for by law.
(3) Such compulsory education shall be free.
Article 27 [Right and Obligation to Work, No Child Labor]
(1) All people shall have the right and the obligation to work.
(2) Standards for wages, hours, rest, and other working
conditions shall be fixed by law.
(3) Children shall not be exploited.
Article 28 [Unions]
The right of workers to organize and to bargain and act
collectively is guaranteed.
Article 29 [Property]
(1) The right to own or to hold property
(2) Property rights shall be defined by law, in conformity with
the public welfare.
(3) Private property may be taken for public use upon just
compensation therefor.
Article 30 [Taxation]
The people shall be liable to taxation as provided by law.
Article 31 [Due Process]
No person shall be deprived of life or liberty, nor shall any
other criminal penalty be imposed, except according to
procedure established by law.
Article 32 [Recourse to the Courts]
No person shall be denied the right of access to the courts.
Article 33 [Arrest]
No person shall be apprehended except upon warrant issued by
a competent judicial officer which specifies the offense with
which the person is charged, unless he is apprehended, the
offense being committed.
Article 34 [Detention]
No person shall be arrested or detained without being at once
informed of the charges against him or without the immediate
privilege of counsel; nor shall he be detained without adequate
cause; and upon demand of any person such cause must be
immediately shown in open court in his presence and the
presence of his counsel.
Article 35 [Search, Seizure]
(1) The right of all persons to be secure in their homes,
papers, and effects against entries, searches, and seizures shall
not be impaired except upon warrant issued for adequate cause
and particularly describing the place to be searched and things
to be seized or except as provided by Article 33.
(2) Each search or seizure shall be made upon separate warrant
issued by a competent judicial officer.
Article 36 [Torture]
The infliction of torture by any public officer and cruel
punishments are absolutely forbidden.
Article 37 [Trial]
(1) In all criminal cases the accused shall enjoy the right to a
speedy and public trial by an impartial tribunal.
(2) He shall be permitted full opportunity to examine all
witnesses, and he shall have the right of compulsory process for
obtaining witnesses on his behalf at public expenses.
(3) At all times the accused shall have the assistance of
competent counsel who shall, if the accused is unable to secure
the same by his own efforts, be assigned to his use by the State.
Article 38 [Rights of the Accused]
(1) No person shall be compelled to testify against himself.
(2) Confession made under compulsion, torture, or threat, or
after prolonged arrest or detention shall not be admitted in
evidence.
(3) No person shall be convicted or punished in cases where
the only proof against him is his own confession.
Article 39 [Nulla Poena Sine Lege, Double Jeopardy]
No person shall be held criminally liable for an act which was
lawful at the time it was committed, or of which he has been
acquitted, nor shall he be placed in double jeopardy.
Article 40 [False Imprisonment]
Any person, in case he is acquitted after he has been arrested or
detained, may sue the State for redress as provided by law.
Article 41 [Legislative Power]
The Diet
Article 42 [Two Houses]
The Diet shall consist of two Houses, namely the House of
Representatives and the House of Councilors.
Article 43 [Membership]
(1) Both Houses shall consist of elected members,
representative of all the people.
(2) The number of the members of each House shall be fixed
by law.
Article 44 [Qualification]
(1) The qualifications of members of both Houses and their
electors shall be fixed by law.
(2) However, there shall be no discrimination because of race,
creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property, or
income.
Article 45 [Term of Representatives]
(1) The term of office of members of the House of
Representatives shall be four years.
(2) However, the term shall be terminated before the full term
is up in case the House of Representatives is dissolved.
Article 46 [Term of Councilors]
The term of office of members of the House of Councilors shall
be six years, and election for half the members shall take place
every three years.
Article 47 [Electoral Procedure]
Electoral districts, method of voting, and other matters
pertaining to the method of election of members of both Houses
shall be fixed by law.
Article 48 [Incompatibility]
No person shall be permitted to be a member of both Houses
simultaneously.
Article 49 [Remuneration]
Members of both Houses shall receive appropriate annual
payment from the national treasury in accordance with law.
Article 50 [Immunity]
Except in cases provided by law, members of both Houses shall
be exempt from apprehension while the Diet is in session, and
any members apprehended before the opening of the session
shall be freed during the term of the session upon demand of
the House.
Article 51 [Indemnity]
Members of both Houses shall not be held liable outside the
House for speeches, debates, or votes cast inside the House.
Article 52 [Ordinary Sessions]
An ordinary session of the Diet shall be convoked once per
year.
Article 53 [Extraordinary Sessions]
(1) The Cabinet may determine to convoke extraordinary
sessions of the Diet.
(2) When a quarter or more of the total members of either
House makes the demand, the Cabinet must determine on such
convocation.
Article 54 [Election of Representatives]
(1) When the House of Representatives is dissolved, there must
be a general election of members of the House of
Representatives within forty days from the date of dissolution,
and the Diet must be convoked within thirty days from the date
of the election.
(2) When the House of Representatives is dissolved, the House
of Councilors is closed at the same time.
(3) However, the Cabinet may in time of national emergency
convoke the House of Councilors in emergency session.
(4) Measures taken at such session as mentioned in the
preceding paragraph shall be provisional and shall become null
and void unless agreed to by the House of Representatives
within a period of ten days after the opening of the next session
of the Diet.
Article 55 [Scrutiny]
(1) Each House shall judge disputes related to qualifications of
its members.
(2) However, in order to deny a seat to any member, it is
necessary to pass a resolution by a majority of two-thirds or
more of the members present.
Article 56 [Quorum]
(1) Business cannot be transacted in either House unless
one-third or more of total membership is present.
(2) All matters shall be decided, in each House, by a majority
of those present, except as elsewhere provided in the
Constitution and in case of a tie, the presiding officer shall
decide the issue.
Article 57 [Publicity]
(1) Deliberation in each House shall be public.
(2) However, a secret meeting may be held where a majority
of two-thirds or more of those members present passes a
resolution therefor.
(3) Each House shall keep a record of proceedings.
(4) This record shall be published and given general
circulation, excepting such parts of proceedings of secret
session as may be deemed to require secrecy.
(5) Upon demand of one-fifth or more of the members present,
votes of the members on any matter shall be recorded in the
minutes.
Article 58 [Presidents, Rules of Procedure]
(1) Each House shall select its own president and other
officials.
(2) Each House shall establish its rules pertaining to meetings,
proceedings and internal discipline, and may punish members
for disorderly conduct.
(3) However, in order to expel a member, a majority of
two-thirds or more of those members present must pass a
resolution thereon.
Article 59 [Legislative Proceedings]
(1) A bill becomes a law on passage by both Houses, except as
otherwise provided by the Constitution.
(2) A bill which is passed by the House of Representatives,
and upon which the House of Councilors makes a decision
different from that of the House of Representatives, becomes a
law when passed a second time by the House of Representatives
by the majority of two-thirds or more of the members present.
(3) The provision of the preceding paragraph does not preclude
the House of Representatives from calling for the meeting of a
joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law.
(4) Failure by the House of Councilors to take final action
within sixty days after receipt of a bill passed by the House of
Representatives, time in recess excepted, may be determined by
the House of Representatives to constitute a rejection of the said
bill by the House of Councilors.
Article 60 [Budget]
(1) The budget
(2) Upon consideration of the budget, when the House of
Councilors makes a decision different from that of the House of
Representatives, and when no agreement can be reached even
through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law,
or in the case of failure by the House of Councilors to take
final action within thirty days, the period of recess excluded,
after the receipt of the budget passed by the House of
Representatives, the decision of the House of Representatives
shall be the decision of the Diet.
Article 61 [Approving Treaties]
Article 60 (2) applies also to the Diet approval required
for the conclusion of treaties.
Article 62 [Investigations]
Each House may conduct investigations in relation to
government, and may demand the presence and testimony of
witnesses and the production of records.
Article 63 [Ministerial Presence]
(1) The Prime Minister and other Ministers of State may, at
any time, appear in either House for the purpose of speaking on
bills, regardless of whether they are members of the House or
not.
(2) They must appear when their presence is required in order
to give answers or explanations.
Article 64 [Impeachment Court]
(1) The Diet shall set up an impeachment court from among
the members of both Houses for the purpose of trying those
judges against whom removal proceedings have been instituted.
(2) Matters relating to impeachment shall be provided by law.
Article 65 [Executive Power]
Executive power is vested in the Cabinet
Article 66 [Membership, Responsibility]
(1) The Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister
(2) The Prime Minister and other Ministers of State must be
civilians.
(3) The Cabinet, in the exercise of executive power, shall be
collectively responsible to the Diet.
Article 67 [Election of Prime Minister]
(1) The Prime Minister shall be designated from among the
members of the Diet by a resolution of the Diet.
(2) This designation shall precede all other business.
(3) If the House of Representatives and the House of
Councilors disagree and if no agreement can be reached even
through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law,
or the House of Councilors fails to make designation within ten
days, exclusive of the period of recess, after the House of
Representatives has made designation, the decision of the House
of Representatives shall be the decision of the Diet.
Article 68 [Appointment of Ministers]
(1) The Prime Minister shall appoint the Ministers of State.
(2) However, a majority of their number must be chosen from
among the members of the Diet.
(3) The Prime Minister may remove the Ministers of State as
he chooses.
Article 69 [Impeachment of Government]
If the House of Representatives passes a resolution of no
conficence, or rejects a confidence resolution, the Cabinet shall
resign altogether, unless the House of Representatives is
dissolved within ten days.
Article 70 [Vacancy Resignation]
When there is a vacancy in the post of Prime Minister, or upon
the first convocation of the Diet after a general election of
members of the House of Representatives, the Cabinet shall
resign altogether.
Article 71 [Continuing Office]
In the cases mentioned in the two preceding articles, the
Cabinet shall continue its functions until the time when a new
Prime Minister is appointed.
Article 72
The Prime Minister, representing the Cabinet, submits bills,
reports on general national affairs and foreign relations to the
Diet and exercises control and supervision over various
administrative branches.
Article 73 [Function of Cabinet]
The Cabinet, in addition to other general administrative
functions, shall perform the following functions:
1. Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of
state.
2. Manage foreign affairs.
3. Conclude treaties. However, it shall obtain prior or,
depending on circumstances, subsequent approval of the
Diet.
4. Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards
established by law.
5. Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet.
6. Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of
this Constitution and of the law. However, it cannot include
penal provisions in such cabinet orders unless authorized by
such law.
7. Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of
punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.
Article 74 [Countersignature]
All laws and cabinet orders shall be signed by the competent
Minister of State and countersigned by the Prime Minister.
Article 75 [Preliminary Immunity]
(1) The Ministers of State, during their tenure of office, shall
not be subject to legal action without the consent of the Prime
Minister.
(2) However, the right to take that action is not impaired
hereby.
Article 76 [Judicial Power]
(1) The whole judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court and
in such inferior courts
(2) No extraordinary tribunal shall be established, nor shall any
organ or agency of the Executive be given final judicial power.
(3) All judges are independent
Article 77 [Judicial Procedure]
(1) The Supreme Court is vested with the rule-making power
under which it determines the rules of procedure and of practice
and of matters relating to attorneys, the internal discipline of
the courts and the administration of judicial affairs.
(2) Public procurators shall be subject to the rule-making
power of the Supreme Court.
(3) The Supreme Court may delegate the power to make rules
for inferior courts to such courts.
Article 78 [Public Impeachment]
(1) Judges shall not be removed except by public impeachment
unless judicially declared mentally or physically incompetent to
perform official duties.
(2) No disciplinary action against judges shall be administered
by any executive organ or agency.
Article 79 [Supreme Court]
(1) The Supreme Court
(2) The appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court shall
be reviewed by the people at the first general election of
members of the House of Representatives following their
appointment, and shall be reviewed again at the first general
election of members of the House of Representatives after a
lapse of ten years, and in the same manner thereafter.
(3) In cases mentioned in the preceding paragraph, when the
majority of the voters favors the dismissal of a judge, he shall
be dismissed.
(4) Matters pertaining to review shall be prescribed by law.
(5) The judges of the Supreme Court shall be retired upon the
attainment of the ages as fixed by law.
(6) All such judges shall receive, at regular stated intervals,
adequate compensation which shall not be decreased during
their terms of office.
Article 80 [Term of Judges]
(1) The judges of the inferior courts shall be appointed by the
Cabinet from a list of persons nominated by the Supreme Court.
(2) All such judges shall hold office for a term of ten years
with privilege of reappointment, provided that they shall be
retired upon the attainment of the age as fixed by law.
(3) The judges of the inferior courts shall receive, at regular
stated intervals, adequate compensation which shall not be
decreased during their terms of office.
Article 81 [Jurisdiction of Supreme Court]
The Supreme Court is the court of last resort with power to
determine the constitutionality of any law, order, regulation, or
official act.
Article 82 [Public Trials]
(1) Trials shall be conducted and judgment declared publicly.
(2) Where a court unanimously determines publicity to be
dangerous to public order or morals, a trial may be conducted
privately, but trials of political offenses, offenses involving the
press, or cases wherein the rights of people as guaranteed in
Chapter III of this Constitution are in question shall
always be conducted publicly.
Article 83 [National Finances]
The power to administer national finances shall be exercised as
the Diet shall determine.
Article 84 [Tax Laws]
No new taxes shall be imposed or existing ones modified except
by law or under such conditions as law may prescribe.
Article 85 [Budget Authorization]
No money shall be expended, nor shall the State obligate itself,
except as authorized by the Diet.
Article 86 [Yearly Budget]
The Cabinet shall prepare and submit to the Diet for its
consideration and decision a budget for each fiscal year.
Article 87 [Reserve Fund]
(1) In order to provide for unforeseen deficiencies in the
budget, a reserve fund may be authorized by the Diet to be
expended upon the responsibility of the Cabinet.
(2) The Cabinet must get subsequent approval of the Diet for
all payments from the reserve fund.
Article 88 [Imperial Household]
(1) All property of the Imperial Household shall belong to the
State.
(2) All expenses of the Imperial Household shall be
appropriated by the Diet in the budget.
Article 89 [Secular Budget]
No public money or other property shall be expended or
appropriated for the use, benefit, or maintenance of any
religious institution or association, or for any charitable,
educational, or benevolent enterprises not under the control of
public authority.
Article 90 [Board of Audit]
(1) Final accounts of the expenditures and revenues of the State
shall be audited annually by a Board of Audit and submitted by
the Cabinet to the Diet, together with the statement of audit,
during the fiscal year immediately following the period covered.
(2) The organization and competency of the Board of Audit
shall be determined by law.
Article 91 [Cabinet Report]
At regular intervals and at least annually the Cabinet shall
report to the Diet and the people on the state of national
finances.
Article 92 [Local Autonomy]
Regulations concerning organization and operations of local
public entities
Article 93 [Local Assemblies]
(1) The local public entities shall establish assemblies as their
deliberative organs, in accordance with the law.
(2) The chief executive officers of all local public entities, the
members of their assemblies, and such other local officials as
may be determined by law shall be elected by direct popular
vote within their several communities.
Article 94 [Budget Autonomy]
Local public entities shall have the right to manage their
property, affairs, and administration and to enact their own
regulations within law.
Article 95 [Veto for Local Laws]
A special law, applicable only to one local public entity, cannot
be enacted by the Diet without the consent of the majority of
the voters of the local public entity concerned, obtained in
accordance with law.
Article 96 [Qualified Majority, Referendum]
(1) Amendments to this Constitution shall be initiated by the
Diet, through a concurring vote of two-thirds or more of all the
members of each House and shall thereupon be submitted to the
people for ratification, which shall require the affirmative vote
of a majority of all votes cast thereon, at a special referendum
or at such election as the Diet shall specify.
(2) Amendments when so ratified shall immediately be
promulgated by the Emperor in the name of the people, as an
integral part of this Constitution.
Article 97 [Inviolable Human Rights]
The fundamental human rights by this Constitution guaranteed
to the people of Japan are fruits of the age-old struggle of man
to be free; they have survived the many exacting tests for
durability and are conferred upon this and future generations in
trust, to be held for all time inviolable.
Article 98 [Unconstitutional Law]
(1) This Constitution shall be the supreme law of the nation
and no law, ordinance, imperial rescript or other act of
government, or part thereof, contrary to the provisions hereof,
shall have legal force or validity.
(2) The treaties concluded by Japan and established laws of
nations shall be faithfully observed.
Article 99 [Binding for all Powers]
The Emperor or the Regent as well as Ministers of States,
members of the Diet, judges, and all other public officials have
the obligation to respect and uphold this Constitution.
Article 100 [Enforcement]
(1) This Constitution shall be enforced as from the day when
the period of six months will have elapsed counting from the
day of its promulgation.
(2) The enactment of laws necessary for the enforcement of
this Constitution, the election of members of the House of
Councilors and the procedure for the convocation of the Diet
and other preparatory procedures necessary for the enforcement
of this Constitution may be executed before the day prescribed
in the preceding paragraph.
Article 101 [Preliminary Diet]
If the House of Councilors is not constituted before the effective
date of this Constitution, the House of Representatives shall
function as the Diet until such time as the House of Councilors
shall be constituted.
Article 102 [Half Term]
(1) The term of office for half the members of the House of
Councilors serving in the first term under this Constitution shall
be three years.
(2) Members falling under this category shall be determined in
accordance with law.
Article 103 [Election of Successors]
(1) The Ministers of State, members of the House of
Representatives, and judges in office on the effective date of
this Constitution, and all other public officials who occupy
positions corresponding to such positions as are recognized by
this Constitution shall not forfeit their positions automatically on
account of the enforcement of this Constitution unless otherwise
specified by law.
(2) When, however, successors are elected or appointed under
the provisions of this Constitution, they shall forfeit their
positions as a matter of course.